Neuroinflammation and Autism
Keywords:
autism, neuro-inflammation, mast cell, microglia, astrocyte, medicationAbstract
The incidence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has increased significantly in the past decades, now affecting 1 out of 68 children in USA. The complexity of this disorder and the unclear mechanisms have hindered the development of an effective therapeutic regimen. Recent studies have suggested that neuro-inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of ASD. A literature review was conducted to examine the evidence of various central immune processes involved in ASD. Conventional and novel medications for ASD treatment were summarized.
References
Johnson CP, Myers SM. Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2007;120(5):1183-1215.
CDC. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years - autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2010. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014;63(2):1-21.
Pardo CA, Vargas DL, Zimmerman AW. Immunity, neuroglia and neuroinflammation in autism. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2005;17(6):485-495.
Vargas DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Ann Neurol. 2005;57(1):67-81.
Morgan JT, Chana G, Pardo CA, et al. Microglial activation and increased microglial density observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in autism. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68(4):368-376.
Zimmerman AW, Jyonouchi H, Comi AM, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid and serum markers of inflammation in autism. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;33(3):195-201.
Chez MG, Dowling T, Patel PB, Khanna P, Kominsky M. Elevation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in cerebrospinal fluid of autistic children. Pediatr Neurol. 2007;36(6):361-365.
Atladottir HO, Pedersen MG, Thorsen P, et al. Association of family history of autoimmune diseases and autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):687-694.
Hsiao EY, McBride SW, Chow J, Mazmanian SK, Patterson PH. Modeling an autism risk factor in mice leads to permanent immune dysregulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(31):12776-12781.
Malkova NV, Yu CZ, Hsiao EY, Moore MJ, Patterson PH. Maternal immune activation yields offspring displaying mouse versions of the three core symptoms of autism. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26(4):607-616.
Pang X, Letourneau R, Rozniecki JJ, Wang L, Theoharides TC. Definitive characterization of rat hypothalamic mast cells. Neuroscience. 1996;73(3):889-902.
Skaper SD, Giusti P, Facci L. Microglia and mast cells: two tracks on the road to neuroinflammation. FASEB J. 2012;26(8):3103-3117.
Angelidou A, Alysandratos KD, Asadi S, et al. Brief report: "allergic symptoms" in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. More than meets the eye? J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(11):1579-1585.
Galli SJ. New concepts about the mast cell. N Engl J Med. 1993;328(4):257-265.
Theoharides TC, Doyle R. Autism, gut-blood-brain barrier, and mast cells. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;28(5):479-483.
Rossi CC, Van de Water J, Rogers SJ, Amaral DG. Detection of plasma autoantibodies to brain tissue in young children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Brain Behav Immun. 2011;25(6):1123-1135.
Braunschweig D, Ashwood P, Krakowiak P, et al. Autism: maternally derived antibodies specific for fetal brain proteins. Neurotoxicology. 2008;29(2):226-231.
Braunschweig D, Duncanson P, Boyce R, et al. Behavioral correlates of maternal antibody status among children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(7):1435-1445.
Mostafa GA, Al-Ayadhi LY. The possible relationship between allergic manifestations and elevated serum levels of brain specific auto-antibodies in autistic children. J Neuroimmunol. 2013;261(1-2):77-81.
Donelan J, Boucher W, Papadopoulou N, et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone induces skin vascular permeability through a neurotensin-dependent process. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(20):7759-7764.
Vasiadi M, Therianou A, Alysandratos KD, et al. Serum neurotensin (NT) is increased in psoriasis and NT induces vascular endothelial growth factor release from human mast cells. Br J Dermatol. 2012;166(6):1349-1352.
Asadi S, Theoharides TC. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and extracellular mitochondria augment IgE-stimulated human mast-cell vascular endothelial growth factor release, which is inhibited by luteolin. J Neuroinflammation. 2012;9:85-91.
Angelidou A, Francis K, Vasiadi M, et al. Neurotensin is increased in serum of young children with autistic disorder. J Neuroinflammation. 2010;7:48-53.
Theoharides TC, Zhang B, Kempuraj D, et al. IL-33 augments substance P-induced VEGF secretion from human mast cells and is increased in psoriatic skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(9): 4448-4453.
Paolicelli RC, Bolasco G, Pagani F, et al. Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development. Science. 2011;333(6048):1456-1458.
Sierra A, Encinas JM, Deudero JJ, et al. Microglia shape adult hippocampal neurogenesis through apoptosis-coupled phagocytosis. Cell Stem Cell. 2010;7(4):483-495.
Smith JA, Das A, Ray SK, Banik NL. Role of pro-inflammatory cytokines released from microglia in neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res Bull. 2012;87(1):10-20.
Tetreault NA, Hakeem AY, Jiang S, et al. Microglia in the cerebral cortex in autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(12):2569-2584.
Suzuki K, Sugihara G, Ouchi Y, et al. Microglial activation in young adults with autism spectrum disorder. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(1):49-58.
Li X, Chauhan A, Sheikh AM, et al. Elevated immune response in the brain of autistic patients. J Neuroimmunol. 2009;207(1-2):111-116.
Connors SL, Crowell DE, Eberhart CG, et al. beta2-adrenergic receptor activation and genetic polymorphisms in autism: data from dizygotic twins. J Child Neurol. 2005;20(11):876-884.
Pitzer M, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Laucht M. Child development after maternal tocolysis with beta-sympathomimetic drugs. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2001;31(3):165-182.
Zerrate MC, Pletnikov M, Connors SL, et al. Neuroinflammation and behavioral abnormalities after neonatal terbutaline treatment in rats: implications for autism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;322(1):16-22.
Sofroniew MV, Vinters HV. Astrocytes: biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 2010;119(1):7-35.
Ahlsen G, Rosengren L, Belfrage M, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with autism and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 1993;33(10):734-743.
Rosengren LE, Ahlsen G, Belfrage M, Gillberg C, Haglid KG, Hamberger A. A sensitive ELISA for glial fibrillary acidic protein: application in CSF of children. J Neurosci Methods. 1992;44(2-3):113-119.
Laurence JA, Fatemi SH. Glial fibrillary acidic protein is elevated in superior frontal, parietal and cerebellar cortices of autistic subjects. Cerebellum. 2005;4(3):206-210.
Fatemi SH, Folsom TD, Reutiman TJ, Lee S. Expression of astrocytic markers aquaporin 4 and connexin 43 is altered in brains of subjects with autism. Synapse. 2008;62(7):501-507.
Boger-Megiddo I, Shaw DW, Friedman SD, et al. Corpus callosum morphometrics in young children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006;36(6):733-739.
Barttfeld P, Wicker B, Cukier S, Navarta S, Lew S, Sigman M. A big-world network in ASD: dynamical connectivity analysis reflects a deficit in long-range connections and an excess of short-range connections. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49(2):254-263.
Damarla SR, Keller TA, Kana RK, et al. Cortical underconnectivity coupled with preserved visuospatial cognition in autism: Evidence from an fMRI study of an embedded figures task. Autism Res. 2010;3(5):273-279.
Ebisch SJ, Gallese V, Willems RM, et al. Altered intrinsic functional connectivity of anterior and posterior insula regions in high-functioning participants with autism spectrum disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2011;32(7):1013-1028.
Herbert MR, Ziegler DA, Deutsch CK, et al. Brain asymmetries in autism and developmental language disorder: a nested whole-brain analysis. Brain. 2005;128(Pt 1):213-226.
Herbert MR, Ziegler DA, Makris N, et al. Localization of white matter volume increase in autism and developmental language disorder. Ann Neurol. 2004;55(4):530-540.
Dichter GS. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of autism spectrum disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2012;14(3):319-351.
Dinstein I, Pierce K, Eyler L, et al. Disrupted neural synchronization in toddlers with autism. Neuron. 2011;70(6):1218-1225.
Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Olsen RK, Kohn PD, et al. Regionally specific disturbance of dorsolateral prefrontal-hippocampal functional connectivity in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(4):379-386.
Waites AB, Briellmann RS, Saling MM, Abbott DF, Jackson GD. Functional connectivity networks are disrupted in left temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2006;59(2):335-343.
Harrison BJ, Soriano-Mas C, Pujol J, et al. Altered corticostriatal functional connectivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(11):1189-1200.
Courchesne E, Pierce K. Why the frontal cortex in autism might be talking only to itself: local over-connectivity but long-distance disconnection. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005;15(2):225-230.
Paolicelli RC, Gross CT. Microglia in development: linking brain wiring to brain environment. Neuron Glia Biol. 2011;7(1):77-83.
Zhan Y, Paolicelli RC, Sforazzini F, et al. Deficient neuron-microglia signaling results in impaired functional brain connectivity and social behavior. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17(3):400-406.
Streit WJ, Mrak RE, Griffin WS. Microglia and neuroinflammation: a pathological perspective. J Neuroinflammation. 2004;1(1):14.
Rock RB, Gekker G, Hu S, et al. Role of microglia in central nervous system infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(4):942-964.
Gehrmann J, Matsumoto Y, Kreutzberg GW. Microglia: intrinsic immuneffector cell of the brain. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1995;20(3):269-287.
Sung M, Fung DS, Cai Y, Ooi YP. Pharmacological management in children and adolescents with pervasive developmental disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010;44(5):410-428.
Hollander E, Phillips A, Chaplin W, et al. A placebo controlled crossover trial of liquid fluoxetine on repetitive behaviors in childhood and adolescent autism. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30(3):582-589.
Namerow L, Thomas P, Bostic JQ, Prince J, Monuteaux MC. Use of citalopram in pervasive developmental disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2003;24(2):104-108.
Owley T, Walton L, Salt J, et al. An open-label trial of escitalopram in pervasive developmental disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(4):343-348.
Williams K, Wheeler DM, Silove N, Hazell P. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010(8):CD004677.
King BH, Hollander E, Sikich L, et al. Lack of efficacy of citalopram in children with autism spectrum disorders and high levels of repetitive behavior: citalopram ineffective in children with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(6):583-590.
Campbell M, Armenteros JL, Malone RP, Adams PB, Eisenberg ZW, Overall JE. Neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children: a prospective, longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(6):835-843.
McDougle CJ, Stigler KA, Erickson CA, Posey DJ. Atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents with autistic and other pervasive developmental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(Suppl 4):15-20.
Caccia S. Safety and pharmacokinetics of atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents. Paediatr Drugs. 2013;15(3):217-233.
Curran MP. Aripiprazole in the treatment of irritability associated with autistic disorder in paediatric patients: profile report. CNS Drugs. 2011;25(9):801-802.
Maayan L, Correll CU. Weight gain and metabolic risks associated with antipsychotic medications in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2011;21(6):517-535.
Sharma A, Shaw SR. Efficacy of risperidone in managing maladaptive behaviors for children with autistic spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr Health Care. 2012;26(4):291-299.
Handen BL, Johnson CR, Lubetsky M. Efficacy of methylphenidate among children with autism and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2000;30(3):245-255.
Buitelaar JK, Danckaerts M, Gillberg C, et al. A prospective, multicenter, open-label assessment of atomoxetine in non-North American children and adolescents with ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13(4):249-257.
Ghuman JK, Aman MG, Lecavalier L, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study of methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in preschoolers with developmental disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(4):329-339.
Andersen IM, Kaczmarska J, McGrew SG, Malow BA. Melatonin for insomnia in children with autism spectrum disorders. J Child Neurol. 2008;23(5):482-485.
Malow B, Adkins KW, McGrew SG, et al. Melatonin for sleep in children with autism: a controlled trial examining dose, tolerability, and outcomes. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(8):1729-1737.
Wirojanan J, Jacquemont S, Diaz R, et al. The efficacy of melatonin for sleep problems in children with autism, fragile X syndrome, or autism and fragile X syndrome. J Clin Sleep Med. 2009;5(2):145-150.
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Pardo CA, Vargas DL, Zimmerman AW. Immunity, neuroglia and neuroinflammation in autism. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2005;17(6):485-495.
Vargas DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Ann Neurol. 2005;57(1):67-81.
Morgan JT, Chana G, Pardo CA, et al. Microglial activation and increased microglial density observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in autism. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68(4):368-376.
Zimmerman AW, Jyonouchi H, Comi AM, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid and serum markers of inflammation in autism. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;33(3):195-201.
Chez MG, Dowling T, Patel PB, Khanna P, Kominsky M. Elevation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in cerebrospinal fluid of autistic children. Pediatr Neurol. 2007;36(6):361-365.
Atladottir HO, Pedersen MG, Thorsen P, et al. Association of family history of autoimmune diseases and autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):687-694.
Hsiao EY, McBride SW, Chow J, Mazmanian SK, Patterson PH. Modeling an autism risk factor in mice leads to permanent immune dysregulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(31):12776-12781.
Malkova NV, Yu CZ, Hsiao EY, Moore MJ, Patterson PH. Maternal immune activation yields offspring displaying mouse versions of the three core symptoms of autism. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26(4):607-616.
Pang X, Letourneau R, Rozniecki JJ, Wang L, Theoharides TC. Definitive characterization of rat hypothalamic mast cells. Neuroscience. 1996;73(3):889-902.
Skaper SD, Giusti P, Facci L. Microglia and mast cells: two tracks on the road to neuroinflammation. FASEB J. 2012;26(8):3103-3117.
Angelidou A, Alysandratos KD, Asadi S, et al. Brief report: "allergic symptoms" in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. More than meets the eye? J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(11):1579-1585.
Galli SJ. New concepts about the mast cell. N Engl J Med. 1993;328(4):257-265.
Theoharides TC, Doyle R. Autism, gut-blood-brain barrier, and mast cells. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;28(5):479-483.
Rossi CC, Van de Water J, Rogers SJ, Amaral DG. Detection of plasma autoantibodies to brain tissue in young children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Brain Behav Immun. 2011;25(6):1123-1135.
Braunschweig D, Ashwood P, Krakowiak P, et al. Autism: maternally derived antibodies specific for fetal brain proteins. Neurotoxicology. 2008;29(2):226-231.
Braunschweig D, Duncanson P, Boyce R, et al. Behavioral correlates of maternal antibody status among children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(7):1435-1445.
Mostafa GA, Al-Ayadhi LY. The possible relationship between allergic manifestations and elevated serum levels of brain specific auto-antibodies in autistic children. J Neuroimmunol. 2013;261(1-2):77-81.
Donelan J, Boucher W, Papadopoulou N, et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone induces skin vascular permeability through a neurotensin-dependent process. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(20):7759-7764.
Vasiadi M, Therianou A, Alysandratos KD, et al. Serum neurotensin (NT) is increased in psoriasis and NT induces vascular endothelial growth factor release from human mast cells. Br J Dermatol. 2012;166(6):1349-1352.
Asadi S, Theoharides TC. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and extracellular mitochondria augment IgE-stimulated human mast-cell vascular endothelial growth factor release, which is inhibited by luteolin. J Neuroinflammation. 2012;9:85-91.
Angelidou A, Francis K, Vasiadi M, et al. Neurotensin is increased in serum of young children with autistic disorder. J Neuroinflammation. 2010;7:48-53.
Theoharides TC, Zhang B, Kempuraj D, et al. IL-33 augments substance P-induced VEGF secretion from human mast cells and is increased in psoriatic skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(9): 4448-4453.
Paolicelli RC, Bolasco G, Pagani F, et al. Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development. Science. 2011;333(6048):1456-1458.
Sierra A, Encinas JM, Deudero JJ, et al. Microglia shape adult hippocampal neurogenesis through apoptosis-coupled phagocytosis. Cell Stem Cell. 2010;7(4):483-495.
Smith JA, Das A, Ray SK, Banik NL. Role of pro-inflammatory cytokines released from microglia in neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res Bull. 2012;87(1):10-20.
Tetreault NA, Hakeem AY, Jiang S, et al. Microglia in the cerebral cortex in autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(12):2569-2584.
Suzuki K, Sugihara G, Ouchi Y, et al. Microglial activation in young adults with autism spectrum disorder. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(1):49-58.
Li X, Chauhan A, Sheikh AM, et al. Elevated immune response in the brain of autistic patients. J Neuroimmunol. 2009;207(1-2):111-116.
Connors SL, Crowell DE, Eberhart CG, et al. beta2-adrenergic receptor activation and genetic polymorphisms in autism: data from dizygotic twins. J Child Neurol. 2005;20(11):876-884.
Pitzer M, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Laucht M. Child development after maternal tocolysis with beta-sympathomimetic drugs. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2001;31(3):165-182.
Zerrate MC, Pletnikov M, Connors SL, et al. Neuroinflammation and behavioral abnormalities after neonatal terbutaline treatment in rats: implications for autism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;322(1):16-22.
Sofroniew MV, Vinters HV. Astrocytes: biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 2010;119(1):7-35.
Ahlsen G, Rosengren L, Belfrage M, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with autism and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 1993;33(10):734-743.
Rosengren LE, Ahlsen G, Belfrage M, Gillberg C, Haglid KG, Hamberger A. A sensitive ELISA for glial fibrillary acidic protein: application in CSF of children. J Neurosci Methods. 1992;44(2-3):113-119.
Laurence JA, Fatemi SH. Glial fibrillary acidic protein is elevated in superior frontal, parietal and cerebellar cortices of autistic subjects. Cerebellum. 2005;4(3):206-210.
Fatemi SH, Folsom TD, Reutiman TJ, Lee S. Expression of astrocytic markers aquaporin 4 and connexin 43 is altered in brains of subjects with autism. Synapse. 2008;62(7):501-507.
Boger-Megiddo I, Shaw DW, Friedman SD, et al. Corpus callosum morphometrics in young children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006;36(6):733-739.
Barttfeld P, Wicker B, Cukier S, Navarta S, Lew S, Sigman M. A big-world network in ASD: dynamical connectivity analysis reflects a deficit in long-range connections and an excess of short-range connections. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49(2):254-263.
Damarla SR, Keller TA, Kana RK, et al. Cortical underconnectivity coupled with preserved visuospatial cognition in autism: Evidence from an fMRI study of an embedded figures task. Autism Res. 2010;3(5):273-279.
Ebisch SJ, Gallese V, Willems RM, et al. Altered intrinsic functional connectivity of anterior and posterior insula regions in high-functioning participants with autism spectrum disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2011;32(7):1013-1028.
Herbert MR, Ziegler DA, Deutsch CK, et al. Brain asymmetries in autism and developmental language disorder: a nested whole-brain analysis. Brain. 2005;128(Pt 1):213-226.
Herbert MR, Ziegler DA, Makris N, et al. Localization of white matter volume increase in autism and developmental language disorder. Ann Neurol. 2004;55(4):530-540.
Dichter GS. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of autism spectrum disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2012;14(3):319-351.
Dinstein I, Pierce K, Eyler L, et al. Disrupted neural synchronization in toddlers with autism. Neuron. 2011;70(6):1218-1225.
Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Olsen RK, Kohn PD, et al. Regionally specific disturbance of dorsolateral prefrontal-hippocampal functional connectivity in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(4):379-386.
Waites AB, Briellmann RS, Saling MM, Abbott DF, Jackson GD. Functional connectivity networks are disrupted in left temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2006;59(2):335-343.
Harrison BJ, Soriano-Mas C, Pujol J, et al. Altered corticostriatal functional connectivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(11):1189-1200.
Courchesne E, Pierce K. Why the frontal cortex in autism might be talking only to itself: local over-connectivity but long-distance disconnection. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005;15(2):225-230.
Paolicelli RC, Gross CT. Microglia in development: linking brain wiring to brain environment. Neuron Glia Biol. 2011;7(1):77-83.
Zhan Y, Paolicelli RC, Sforazzini F, et al. Deficient neuron-microglia signaling results in impaired functional brain connectivity and social behavior. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17(3):400-406.
Streit WJ, Mrak RE, Griffin WS. Microglia and neuroinflammation: a pathological perspective. J Neuroinflammation. 2004;1(1):14.
Rock RB, Gekker G, Hu S, et al. Role of microglia in central nervous system infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(4):942-964.
Gehrmann J, Matsumoto Y, Kreutzberg GW. Microglia: intrinsic immuneffector cell of the brain. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1995;20(3):269-287.
Sung M, Fung DS, Cai Y, Ooi YP. Pharmacological management in children and adolescents with pervasive developmental disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010;44(5):410-428.
Hollander E, Phillips A, Chaplin W, et al. A placebo controlled crossover trial of liquid fluoxetine on repetitive behaviors in childhood and adolescent autism. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30(3):582-589.
Namerow L, Thomas P, Bostic JQ, Prince J, Monuteaux MC. Use of citalopram in pervasive developmental disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2003;24(2):104-108.
Owley T, Walton L, Salt J, et al. An open-label trial of escitalopram in pervasive developmental disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(4):343-348.
Williams K, Wheeler DM, Silove N, Hazell P. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010(8):CD004677.
King BH, Hollander E, Sikich L, et al. Lack of efficacy of citalopram in children with autism spectrum disorders and high levels of repetitive behavior: citalopram ineffective in children with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(6):583-590.
Campbell M, Armenteros JL, Malone RP, Adams PB, Eisenberg ZW, Overall JE. Neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children: a prospective, longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(6):835-843.
McDougle CJ, Stigler KA, Erickson CA, Posey DJ. Atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents with autistic and other pervasive developmental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(Suppl 4):15-20.
Caccia S. Safety and pharmacokinetics of atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents. Paediatr Drugs. 2013;15(3):217-233.
Curran MP. Aripiprazole in the treatment of irritability associated with autistic disorder in paediatric patients: profile report. CNS Drugs. 2011;25(9):801-802.
Maayan L, Correll CU. Weight gain and metabolic risks associated with antipsychotic medications in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2011;21(6):517-535.
Sharma A, Shaw SR. Efficacy of risperidone in managing maladaptive behaviors for children with autistic spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr Health Care. 2012;26(4):291-299.
Handen BL, Johnson CR, Lubetsky M. Efficacy of methylphenidate among children with autism and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2000;30(3):245-255.
Buitelaar JK, Danckaerts M, Gillberg C, et al. A prospective, multicenter, open-label assessment of atomoxetine in non-North American children and adolescents with ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13(4):249-257.
Ghuman JK, Aman MG, Lecavalier L, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study of methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in preschoolers with developmental disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(4):329-339.
Andersen IM, Kaczmarska J, McGrew SG, Malow BA. Melatonin for insomnia in children with autism spectrum disorders. J Child Neurol. 2008;23(5):482-485.
Malow B, Adkins KW, McGrew SG, et al. Melatonin for sleep in children with autism: a controlled trial examining dose, tolerability, and outcomes. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(8):1729-1737.
Wirojanan J, Jacquemont S, Diaz R, et al. The efficacy of melatonin for sleep problems in children with autism, fragile X syndrome, or autism and fragile X syndrome. J Clin Sleep Med. 2009;5(2):145-150.
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Published
2014-07-31
How to Cite
Wang, Q. M., Luo, A. Z., & Kong, X. (2014). Neuroinflammation and Autism. North American Journal of Medicine and Science, 7(3). Retrieved from https://najms.com/index.php/najms/article/view/153
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Section
Review
